```
  BIP: 54
  Layer: Consensus (soft fork)
  Title: Consensus Cleanup
  Authors: Antoine Poinsot <mail@antoinep.com>
           Matt Corallo <bips@bluematt.me>
  Status: Complete
  Type: Specification
  Assigned: 2025-04-11
  License: CC0-1.0
```

## Abstract

This document proposes new consensus rules in order to fix the timewarp attack, reduce the worst
case block validation time, prevent Merkle tree weaknesses, and avoid duplicate transactions without
[bip-0030][BIP30] validation.

## Motivation

This proposal addresses a number of long-standing vulnerabilities and weaknesses in the Bitcoin
protocol. Bundling these fixes together amortizes the fixed cost of deploying a Bitcoin soft fork.

The [timewarp bug][SE timewarp] makes it possible for a majority-hashrate attacker to arbitrarily
lower mining difficulty, and therefore arbitrarily increase the block rate. In the worst case, an
attacker can bring down the difficulty to its minimum within 38 days of starting the attack. Besides
empowering a 51% attacker, the presence of this bug makes it harder to reason about miners'
incentives. Accelerating the block rate allows an attacker to steal block subsidy from future
miners and increases available block space. It may be in the interest of short-sighted users and
miners to exploit this vulnerability to materially increase the block rate without fatally hurting
the network.

Specially crafted blocks may be expensive to process, [taking up to][Delving worst block] several
minutes to validate even on high-end devices, and up to a few hours on lower-end devices. Long block
validation times are a nuisance to users, increasing the cost to independently fully validate the
consensus rules. In addition they can be used by miners to attack their competition, creating
perverse incentives, centralization pressures and leading to reduced network security.

In computing a block's Merkle root, a transaction with exactly 64 bytes of non-witness data can be
interpreted both as an intermediate node in the tree and as a leaf in the tree. This makes it
possible to trick an SPV verifier into accepting an inclusion proof for a transaction that is not
part of a block, by pretending a 64-byte block transaction is actually an inner node[^9]. Invalidating
64-byte transactions addresses this vulnerability without requiring users of SPV verifiers, or
any other user of Merkle proofs, to rely on one of the available workarounds[^13] or even to know one is
necessary in the first place.

Since [bip-0034][BIP34] activation, explicit [bip-0030][BIP30] validation is not necessary until
block height 1,983,702[^0]. Resuming [bip-0030][BIP30] validation would unnecessarily increase block
validation overhead and preclude alternative full node designs (such as [bip-0182][BIP182] Utreexo).
Enforcing that new coinbase transactions are different from the early [bip-0034][BIP34] violations
makes it possible to get rid of [bip-0030][BIP30] validation forever.

## Specification

For all blocks after activation the following new rules apply.

Given a block at height `N`:
- if `N % 2016` is equal to 0, the timestamp of the block must be set to a value higher than or
  equal to the value of the timestamp of block at height `N-1` minus 7200 (T<sub>N</sub> &ge;
  T<sub>N−1</sub> − 7200);
- if `N % 2016` is equal to 2015, the timestamp of the block must be set to a value higher than
  or equal to the value of the timestamp of the block at height `N-2015` (T<sub>N</sub> &ge;
  T<sub>N−2015</sub>).

A limit is set on the number of signature operations present in the scripts used to validate a
transaction. It applies to all transactions in the block except the coinbase transaction[^1]. For
each input in the transaction, count the number of `CHECKSIG` and `CHECKMULTISIG` in the input
scriptSig and previous output's scriptPubKey, including the P2SH redeemScript. If the total summed
over all transaction inputs is strictly higher than 2500, the transaction is invalid. The accounting is the
same as for [bip-0016][BIP16 specs], evaluating the scriptSig, scriptPubKey, and P2SH redeemScript
separately:

1. `CHECKSIG` and `CHECKSIGVERIFY` count as 1 signature operation, whether or not they are evaluated.
2. `CHECKMULTISIG` and `CHECKMULTISIGVERIFY` immediately preceded by `OP_1` through `OP_16` are counted as 1 to 16 signature operations, whether or not they are evaluated.
3. All other `CHECKMULTISIG` and `CHECKMULTISIGVERIFY` are counted as 20 signature operations, whether or not they are evaluated.

Transactions whose witness-stripped serialized size is exactly 64 bytes are invalid.

The coinbase transaction's `nLockTime` field must be set to the height of the block minus 1[^2]
and its `nSequence` field must not be equal to 0xffffffff.

## Rationale

The restrictions on the timestamp of the first and last blocks of a difficulty adjustment period fix
the timewarp and Murch–Zawy vulnerabilities[^3]. The latter poses mostly theoretical concerns but is
extremely low risk to fix: the duration of an adjustment period has never been, and should never be,
negative. The former is fixed by preventing the timestamp of the first block of a difficulty period
from being lower than the previous block's, with a two-hour grace period. A [previous
proposal][BIP-XXXX] to fix the timewarp attack used a ten-minute grace period instead, and this
approach has been adopted for [testnet4][BIP94 timewarp]. Out of an abundance of caution and because it only trivially worsens the
block rate increase under attack, a two-hour grace period is used here[^4].

Disabling some Script operations and functionalities was [previously proposed][BIP-XXXX] to reduce
the worst case block validation time but was met with resistance due to confiscation concerns[^5]. A
delicate balance needs to be struck between minimizing the confiscation risks of a mitigation, even
if merely theoretical, and bounding the costs one could impose on all other users of the system. To
that end, limiting potentially executed signature operations targets the exact harmful behaviour while
preserving maximal flexibility in Script usage.
Such a limit reduces the worst case block validation time by a factor of 40 and drastically
increases the preparation cost of an attack, making it uneconomical for a miner[^6]. The maximum of
2500 was chosen as the tightest value that did not make any non-pathological standard transaction
invalid[^7].

64-byte transactions can only contain a scriptPubKey that lets anyone spend the funds, or one that
burns them. They have also been non-standard since 2019 and never been used since 2016.  Several
alternatives to invalidating them were previously proposed. Some believe the improvements for users
of Merkle proofs are too marginal to be worth introducing a discontinuity in the set of valid
witness-stripped transaction sizes (discussion [here][64 bytes debate]). Others have suggested instead committing to the Merkle
tree depth in the header's version field[^8], or even invalidating Merkle tree nodes that correspond
to a valid serialisation for a Bitcoin transaction[^14]. These options make some of the available
workarounds[^13] easier to deploy. The authors believe it is preferable to address the root cause by
invalidating 64-byte transactions. This fixes the vulnerability for users relying on Merkle proofs
of non-64-byte transactions, without requiring a workaround.

The `nLockTime` field of transactions is a natural place to store a block height and is currently
unused in coinbase transactions. Using it to enforce that new coinbase transactions differ from
early [bip-0034][BIP34] violations also allows applications to recover the block height without
having to parse Script. Leveraging the existing timelock mechanism makes the check self-contained:
the same coinbase transaction cannot have been valid in a previous block[^11]. This simplifies both
reasoning and client implementation, since the [bip-0030][BIP30] check can be skipped entirely past
Consensus Cleanup activation, regardless of the [bip-0034][BIP34] activation status[^12]. One person
[raised the concern][miningdev nLockTime] that the `nLockTime` field would be an ideal extranonce
for ASIC controllers if such controllers ever became a bottleneck in mining operations. Others
[replied][miningdev nLockTime] that the same benefits could be achieved by using a dummy output
instead, should that ever become necessary. The authors [believe][ML remaining concerns] the
benefits of using `nLockTime` to differentiate coinbase transactions outweigh the theoretical
cost of making it unavailable for extranonce rolling by ASIC controllers.

## Backward compatibility

This proposal only tightens the block validation rules: there is no block that is valid under the
rules proposed in this BIP but not under the existing Bitcoin consensus rules. As a consequence
these changes are backward-compatible with non-upgraded node software. That said, the authors
strongly encourage node operators to upgrade in order to fully validate all consensus rules.

## Miner forward compatibility

Bitcoin Core version [29.0][Core 29.0] and later will not generate a block template that violates
the timestamp restrictions introduced in this BIP. Although it would be extremely unlikely due to
the grace period used in this proposal, miners should use the `curtime` or `mintime` field from the
`getblocktemplate` result for their block's timestamp to make sure they always create blocks valid
according to this proposal. Note this is not a new requirement: using a timestamp lower than the
`mintime` field from the `getblocktemplate` result already leads to creating an invalid block.

Bitcoin Core version [30.0][Core 30.0] and later will not generate a block template including a
transaction that violates the signature operations limit introduced in this BIP.

Bitcoin Core version [0.16.1][Core 0.16.1] and later will neither relay nor create block templates
that include transactions whose witness-stripped serialized size is exactly 64 bytes.

The coinbase transaction is usually crafted by mining pool software. To the best of the authors'
knowledge, there does not exist an open source reference broadly in use today for such software.
We encourage mining pools to update their software to craft coinbase transactions that are
forward-compatible with the changes proposed in this BIP.

## Reference implementation

An implementation of BIP54 for Bitcoin Core is available [here][Core BIP 54 implem].

## Test vectors

Documented test vectors are available [here](./bip-0054/test_vectors/) for all mitigations
introduced in this BIP.

## Acknowledgements

This document builds upon an [earlier proposal][BIP-XXXX] by Matt Corallo.

The authors would like to thank everyone involved in researching the most appropriate mitigation for
each of these bugs. We would like to thank in particular Anthony Towns and Sjors Provoost for their
direct contributions to this proposal, as well as @0xb10c and Brian Groll for providing the authors
with data to analyze the proposed mitigations. Thanks to Chris Stewart for digging up historical
violations to the new transaction size rule, which are partially reused in this BIP's test vectors.

## Copyright

This document is licensed under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal license.

## Changelog

* __1.0.0__ (2026-05-22):
    * Complete planned work on the BIP.


[^0]: Block 1,983,702 is the earliest future block which could contain a duplicate coinbase
transaction while still respecting [bip-0034][BIP34]. See [this post][Delving duplicable] for a list
of all such future blocks.
[^1]: Technically this limit *cannot* apply to a coinbase transaction as the size of its sole
input's scriptSig is limited.
[^2]: The locktime validation, which is also performed for coinbase transactions, enforces that the
nLockTime value is the last block at which a transaction is invalid, not the first one at which it
is valid.
[^3]: The timewarp attack is described [here][SE timewarp] and the Murch–Zawy attack [here][Delving
Murch-Zawy].
[^4]: The testnet4 difficulty exception pushed blocks' timestamps in the future when abused,
revealing how some broken pool software may produce blocks that don't respect a 10 minutes grace
period. Some [raised concerns][Sjors grace period] similarly broken software might be used on
mainnet. Using a grace period of 2 hours instead of 10 minutes only reduces the expected block
interval time under attack by ~2.2 seconds. See [this post][grace period debate summary] for more.
[^5]: The argument is about someone having a timelocked presigned transaction using some of those
features in its output script. The transaction cannot be mined before activation. Such outputs would
not be covered by an amnesty for old UTxOs. See for instance [here][O'Connor OP_CODESEPARATOR] and
[here][O'Connor sighash type] for discussions on this topic.
[^6]: It is important to reduce the worst case block validation time as well as the ratio of
validation time imposed over preparation cost. The former is to limit the damages an externally
motivated attacker can do. The latter is to disincentivize miners slowing down their competition by
mining expensive blocks. See [this thread][ML thread validation time] for more.
[^7]: A non-pathological transaction would have a public key per signature operation and at least
one signature per input. Per standardness a single P2SH input may not have more than 15 signature
operations. Even by using 1-of-15 `CHECKMULTISIG`s a transaction would bump against the maximum
standard transaction size before running into the newly introduced limit. To run against the newly
introduced limit but not the transaction size a transaction would need to spend P2SH inputs with a
redeem script similar to `CHECKSIG DROP CHECKSIG DROP ...`. This type of redeem script serves no
purpose beyond increasing its validation cost, which is exactly what this proposal aims to mitigate.
[^8]: By Sergio Demian Lerner in a [blog post][Sergio post].
[^9]: Conversely, pretending that the inner nodes on one level of the tree are the actual block
transactions is another source of complexity for full node implementations, which previously
resulted in consensus bugs. For instance, Bitcoin Core versions between 0.13.0 and 0.13.2
implemented caching that made it vulnerable to this attack. See [this writeup][Suhas Merkle] by
Suhas Daftuar for a detailed explanation. Invalidating 64-byte transactions may avoid this risk, but
the issue is largely orthogonal to this proposal: it is fundamentally about caching validation
status for malleable blocks.
[^11]: Technically it could be argued a duplicate could in principle always be possible before block
31,001 when `nLockTime` enforcement [was originally soft-forked][Harding nLockTime]. But treating
coinbase transactions as not having duplicate past Consensus Cleanup activation would be consistent
for any implementation which enforces `nLockTime` from the genesis block, which is the behaviour
notably of Bitcoin Core but also of all other implementations the authors are aware of.
[^12]: For instance Bitcoin Core only disables [bip-0030][BIP30] validation for a specific chain
where [bip-0034][BIP34] violations have been manually inspected (see [here][Core validation.cpp
BIP34]). Without the guarantee given by enforcing the timelock on coinbase transactions, this would
have to be perpetuated for the Consensus Cleanup.
[^13]: The authors are aware of three workarounds for SPV verifiers. The first is to request a
Merkle proof for the coinbase transaction in addition to the transaction of interest, to infer the
depth of the Merkle tree. The second is to reject Merkle proofs in which any inner node is also a
valid serialisation of a Bitcoin transaction. More details about these are available [here][Sergio
post]. A third workaround is to change the Merkle proof structure by requiring inner nodes to be
provided as the single-SHA256 of their preimage, instead of the double-SHA256. See [here][Sergio
MERKLEBLOCK] for a full description.
[^14]: [Jeremy Rubin "Prohibit Merkle Internal Node Preimages That Encode Minimal 64-Byte Transactions" (mailing list)][Rubin node preimages].

[Delving worst block]: https://delvingbitcoin.org/t/great-consensus-cleanup-revival/710/93
[BIP30]: https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0030.mediawiki
[BIP182]: https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/pull/1923
[BIP-XXXX]: https://github.com/TheBlueMatt/bips/blob/7f9670b643b7c943a0cc6d2197d3eabe661050c2/bip-XXXX.mediawiki
[BIP34]: https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0034.mediawiki
[BIP16 specs]: https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0016.mediawiki#specification
[SE timewarp]: https://bitcoin.stackexchange.com/questions/75831/what-is-time-warp-attack-and-how-does-it-work-in-general/75834#75834
[Delving Murch-Zawy]: https://delvingbitcoin.org/t/zawy-s-alternating-timestamp-attack/1062#variant-on-zawys-attack-2
[BIP94 timewarp]: https://github.com/bitcoin/bips/blob/master/bip-0094.mediawiki#time-warp-fix
[Sjors grace period]: https://delvingbitcoin.org/t/timewarp-attack-600-second-grace-period/1326
[grace period debate summary]: https://delvingbitcoin.org/t/great-consensus-cleanup-revival/710/66
[O'Connor OP_CODESEPARATOR]: https://gnusha.org/pi/bitcoindev/CAMZUoKneArC+YZ36YFwxNTKsDtJhEz5P2cosXKxJS8Rf_3Nyuw@mail.gmail.com
[O'Connor sighash type]: https://gnusha.org/pi/bitcoindev/CAMZUoK=1kgZLR1YZ+cJgzwmEOwrABYFs=2Ri=xGX=BCr+w=VQw@mail.gmail.com
[ML thread validation time]: https://gnusha.org/pi/bitcoindev/VsltJ2PHqWfzG4BU9YETTXjL7fYBbJhjVXKZQyItemySIA1okvNee9kf0zAOyLMeJ4Nqv1VOrYbWns5nP4TANCWvPJYu1ew_yxQSaudizzk=@protonmail.com
[Suhas Merkle]: https://gnusha.org/pi/bitcoindev/CAFp6fsGtEm9p-ZQF_XqfqyQGzZK7BS2SNp2z680QBsJiFDraEA@mail.gmail.com
[Sergio post]: https://bitslog.com/2018/06/09/leaf-node-weakness-in-bitcoin-merkle-tree-design
[Sergio MERKLEBLOCK]: https://bitslog.com/2018/08/21/simple-change-to-the-bitcoin-merkleblock-command-to-protect-from-leaf-node-weakness-in-transaction-merkle-tree/
[64 bytes debate]: https://delvingbitcoin.org/t/great-consensus-cleanup-revival/710/41
[Harding nLockTime]: https://bitcoin.stackexchange.com/questions/90229/nlocktime-in-bitcoin-core
[Delving duplicable]: https://delvingbitcoin.org/t/great-consensus-cleanup-revival/710/4
[Core 0.16.1]: https://bitcoincore.org/en/releases/0.16.1
[Core 29.0]: https://bitcoincore.org/en/releases/29.0
[Core BIP 54 implem]: https://github.com/darosior/bitcoin/tree/bip54
[Core 30.0]: https://bitcoincore.org/en/releases/30.0
[Core validation.cpp BIP34]: https://github.com/bitcoin/bitcoin/blob/390e7d61bd531505bb3d13f38316c282b85ed1dd/src/validation.cpp#L2401-L2459
[miningdev nLockTime]: https://groups.google.com/g/bitcoinminingdev/c/jlqlNHHNSNk
[ML remaining concerns]: https://gnusha.org/pi/bitcoindev/UsKuvCXXhSAnNVx5a0K2UfP3srAr3slW9mcOjtYk9LnolaOXfWrW9jpqbxsQQPkyQuZogkhz2Hbfwii2VsTm79vRDpgKduxk35hpBu_t7Do=@protonmail.com/
[Rubin node preimages]: https://gnusha.org/pi/bitcoindev/f97afcc5-54ba-4284-8e9b-e8c35c7101f6n@googlegroups.com/
